INTERNATIONAL TOURISM
International Tourism - Cultures and Behavior
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By
Yvette Reisinger, PhD, Associate Professor of Tourism, the Department of Management, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Description
In recent years there has been a considerable interest in the cultural aspects of tourism such as the impacts of culture on tourism planning, development, management, and marketing. However, the focus has been on material forms of culture such as arts, music, or crafts. The impacts of national culture on tourist behavior and travel decision-making have not been paid much attention. Only in the last two years have cross-cultural issues begun to generate significant interest among academics. An examination of cultural characteristics and differences is extremely important to the tourism industry because today?s tourism environment is becoming increasingly international. Advances in technology, and improved communication and transportation have enhanced peoples? mobility and travel such that exposure to culturally different societies, cultures exchanges and interactions is now commonplace. It is imperative for industry representatives, who operate in the international business environment and deal with foreign tourists on a daily basis, to understand the influence of national cultures of their customers. Unfortunately, information on the nature of the cultural differences between international tourists and locals is not readily available in tourism literature. The concept of culture is very complex. The analysis of cultural differences in a multidisciplinary tourism context and/or application of the literature on cultural differences in the abstract concepts such as satisfaction, attitude or loyalty (that have different meanings in different cultures) to the tourism context create problems. Although the effects of national characteristics on consumer behavior in general have been investigated in several research studies, more information is required concerning the cultural differences in the tourism context. This book will bring these concepts to the undergraduate student in tourism, as well as students in the related fields of marketing, management, international business, and cross-cultural communication. Designed as a textbook, it will organized and presented in an integrated and relevant way for the benefit of a worldwide audience.
Audience
Undergraduate students in tourism. Grad. students and tourism practitioners who deal with cross-cultural issues and communication
Contents
Table of Contents Acknowledgements Preface List of Tables List of Figures Foreword Introduction Aims Scope Reader benefits General market Part One International Tourism: The Global Environment 1 Globalization, tourism and culture Introduction 1.1 The concept and roots of globalization 1.2 Benefits and criticism of globalization 1.3 Globalization and the tourism industry 1.3.1 The influence of globalization on tourism 1.3.2 Forms and examples of globalization in tourism 1.3.3 A new type of tourist 1.3.4 A new type of tourism 1.4 Globalization and culture 1.4.1 The emergence of globalized consumer culture? 1.4.2 Global consumer and global products? 1.4.3 Disappearance of local cultures? 1.4.4 Cultural homogenization? 1.4.5 Product standardization or customization? 1.4.6 Cultural heterogenization? 1.4.7 Cultural convergence or divergence? 1.4.8 Cultural hybridization? 1.4.9 Cultural commoditization? 1.4.10 Cultural deterioration, loss, adaptation or change? 1.4.11 Consumerism a bad thing for tourism? 1.4.12 Globalization and disappearance of local identity? 1.4.13 Resistance to cultural change and emergence of local identity 1.4.14 Glocalisation 1.4.15 Local internationalization and regional cooperation 1.5 Benefits and limitations of globalization in tourism 1.6 Challenges of globalization in tourism 1.7 The future of globalization: Americanization of culture, cosmopolitan culture, cultural hybridization, cultural disappearance or culture clash? Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 1.1: The emergence of a global tourist culture? Disneyland resorts spread over the world Website links References 2 Cultural diversity Introduction 2.1 The concept of cultural diversity 2.1.1 Definition 2.1.2 Interpretation of cultural diversity 2.1.3 How did the concept of cultural diversity develop? 2.1.4 How to measure cultural diversity? 2.1.5 Is cultural diversity important? 2.1.6 The benefits of cultural diversity 2.1.7 The influence of cultural diversity on tourism and hospitality 2.2 UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity 2.3 The future of cultural diversity 2.4 Challenges for the tourism and hospitality industry Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 2.1: American in Paris Case Study 2.2: Creativity in a tense situation Case Study 2.3: Promoting the unpromotional Website links References Part Two Cultural Theories and Practices 3 Intercultural theories Introduction 3.1 Communication Resourcefulness Theory (CRT) 3.2 Episode Representation Theory (ERT) 3.3 Expectations Theory (ET) 3.4 Cultural Identity Negotiation Theory (CINT) 3.5 Meaning of Meaning Theory 3.6 Network Theory in Intercultural Communication 3.7 Taxonomic Approach (TA) 3.8 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT) 3.9 Stranger Theory 3.10 Face-Negotiation Theory 3.11 Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT) 3.12 Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) 3.13 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory (CMMT) 3.14 Constructivist Theory (CT) Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Website links References 4 Cultural practices and tourism impacts on culture Introduction 4.1 Erosion of local cultures 4.2 Cultural commoditization and transformation 4.3 Cultural hostility 4.4 Cultural arrogance 4.5 Authenticity of tourism experiences 4.6 Renaissance of traditional art forms 4.7 Marketing of culture and violation of rights to own cultural heritage 4.8 Culture change 4.9 Culture diffusion 4.10 Cultural borrowing 4.11 Cultural drift 4.12 Acculturation 4.13 Cultural adaptation 4.14 Cultural adjustment 4.15 Culture assimilation 4.16 Enculturation 4.17 Demonstration effect 4.18 Cultural conflict Summary Discussion points and questions Further readings Case Study 4.1: Discovering the Maori culture Website links References Part Three Culture and Cultural Differences 5 Culture Introduction 5.1 Definition of culture 5.2 Culture as civilization 5.3 Cultures by region 5.4 Culture as religion 5.5 The world?s major religions 5.6 Religion by region 5.7 Types and levels of culture 5.8 Civilization 5.9 Types of cultures in tourism 5.10 The purpose of culture 5.11 Characteristics of culture 5.12 Subcultures 5.13 Culture versus nationality 5.14 Culture versus country of residence 5.15 Culture versus country of birth 5.16 Cultural identity 5.17 Cultural distance 5.18 The impact of cultural distance on travel 5.19 The measurement of cultural distance Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 5.1: Micro-cultures of the U.S. Website links References 6 Cultural variability Introduction 6.1 Sources of cultural differences 6.2 Cultural values 6.2.1 Concept and definitions 6.2.2 Culture and values 6.2.3 Value system and value orientation 6.2.4 Value orientation 6.2.5 Types of values 6.2.6 Classification of values 6.2.7 Measurement and analysis of values 6.2.8 Value studies in tourism 6.2.9 Cultural value dimensions 6.2.9.1 Parson?s pattern variables 6.2.9.2 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's value orientation 6.2.9.3 Stewart?s cultural patterns 6.2.9.4 Hall's cultural differentiation 6.2.9.5 Hofstede's dimensions of cultural variability 6.2.9.6 Bond?s Confucian cultural patterns 6.2.9.7 Argyle's cultural differentiation 6.2.9.8 Schein?s, Trompenaars? and Maznevski?s cultural differentiation 6.2.9.9 Schneider and Barsoux?s cultural assumptions 6.2.9.10 Inglehart's cultural dimensions 6.2.9.11 Minkov?s World Value Survey Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Exercises Case Study 6.1: The U.S. culture Website links References 7 Cultural influences on intercultural communication Introduction 7.1 The concept of communication 7.2 What is intercultural communication? 7.3 Difficulties in intercultural communication 7.3.1 Verbal signals 7.3.2 Non-verbal signals 7.3.3 Relationship patterns 7.3.4 Conversation style 7.3.5 Interaction style 7.3.6 Values 7.3.7 Time orientation 7.3.8 Context orientation 7.4 Is intercultural communication possible? 7.5 Ethnocentrism 7.6 Stereotyping 7.7 Prejudices 7.8 Racism 7.9 Strategies for improving intercultural communication 7.10 The ethics of intercultural communication Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 7.1: Courtesy and politeness in Thailand and Australia Website links References 8 Cultural influences on social interaction Introduction 8.1 Concept and definitions 8.2 Social interaction in tourism 8.3 Intercultural social interaction 8.4 Types of intercultural interaction 8.5 Model of cross-cultural social interaction 8.6 Contact hypothesis 8.7 Difficulties in cross-cultural interaction 8.8 Culture shock Summary Discussion points and questions Further readings Case Study 8.1: Shanghai night or nightmare? Website links References 9 Cultural influences on rules of social interaction Introduction 9.1 Rules of social interaction 9.2 Orders and types of rules 9.3 Relationship rules 9.4 Cultural influences on rules of social interaction 9.5 Understanding rules of social interaction 9.6 Breaking rules 9.7 Cross-cultural differences in rules of social interaction Summary Discussion points and questions Further readings Case Study 9.1: Universal and specific rules of social relationships websites References 10 Cultural influences on service Introduction 10.1 The concept of service 10.2 Service encounter 10.3 Service classification 10.4 Key characteristics of service 10.5 Importance of service perceptions 10.6 Cultural differences in expectations from service 10.7 Service quality and value 10.8 Service satisfaction 10.9 Do cultural differences always matter? Summary Discussion points and questions Further readings Case Study 10.1: Chinese travelers in France Website links References 11 Cultural influences on ethical behavior Introduction 11.1 The concept of ethics 11.2 Ethics in tourism 11.3 Ethics in a cross-cultural context 11.4 Cultural influences in ethical behavior 11.5 The most debatable business ethics issues 11.6 Conflicting ethical behavior and practices in tourism and hospitality. Ethical dilemmas 11.7 Theories and frameworks dealing with ethical dilemmas 11.8 Strategies for managing business ethical dilemmas 11.9 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 11.1: Global Code of Ethics for Tourism Website links References Part Four Tourist Behavior 12 Human behavior: its nature and determinants Introduction 12.1 The concept of human behavior 12.2 Environmental factors influencing human behavior 12.3 Theories of human behavior 12.4 Basic needs of human behavior 12.5 Factors influencing human needs 12.6 The concept of tourist behavior 12.7 The nature of tourist behavior 12.8 The meaning of tourist behavior 12.9 The importance of studying tourist behavior 12.10 The importance of studying tourist behavior in a cross-cultural context 12.11 Benefits of understanding tourist behavior in a cross-cultural context Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 12.1: The Asian woman?s shopping experience: New research from Thailand Website links References 13 Consumer buying behavior Introduction 13.1 Environmental Factors 13.1.1 Environmental stimuli 13.2 Buyer?s factors 13.2.1 Buyer?s personal characteristics 13.2.2 Buyer?s psychological characteristics 13.2.3 Decision process 13.3 Other theories of consumer decision-making Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Website links References 14 Cultural influences on tourist buying behavior Introduction 14.1 Cultural influence on buyer?s personal characteristics 14.1.1 Gender roles 14.1.2 Lifestyle and activities 14.1.3 Personality 14.1.4 The self concept 14.2 Cultural influences on buyer?s psychological characteristics 14.2.1 Motivation and needs 14.2.2 Perception and image 14.2.3 Learning and knowledge 14.2.4 Attitudes 14.2.5 Attribution 14.3 Cultural influences on buyer?s decision process 14.3.1 Need recognition 14.3.2 Information search and choice of information sources 14.3.2.1 The role of reference groups 14.3.2.2 The role of opinion leadership 14.3.2.3 Family decision making 14.3.2.4 Buying roles 14.3.2.5 Level of decision-making 14.3.2.6 Buying new products 14.3.3 Criteria and product evaluation 14.3.4 Purchase decision 14.3.4.1 Purchase risk 14.3.5 Post-purchase behavior/decision 14.3.5.1 Satisfaction 14.3.5.2 Loyalty and commitment 14.3.5.3 Criticism and complaints 14.3.5.4 Product disposal 14.3.6 Beyond the purchase decision 14.3.6.1 Memories and meanings 14.3.6.2 Emotions and feelings Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 14.1: Japanese tourist behavior Case Study 14.2: Cultural influences on tourist behavior Website links References Part Five Cross-Cultural Comparison 15 Cultural differences among international societies Introduction 15.1 Africa 15.2 Asia 15.2.1 Common Asian values 15.2.2 China 15.2.3 Indonesia 15.2.4 Japan 15.2.5 Malaysia 15.2.6 Pakistan 15.2.7 The Philippines 15.2.8 South Korea 15.2.9 Thailand 15.2.10 Vietnam 15.3 Australia 15.4 Europe 15.4.1 Important European values 15.4.2 France 15.4.3 Germany 15.4.4 Italy 15.4.5 Poland 15.4.6 Russia 15.4.7 Spain 15.4.8 United Kingdom 15.5 India 15.6 Latin America 15.6.1 Common Latin American values 15.6.2 Mexico 15.6.3 Brazil 15.7 Middle East 15.7.1 Common Arab values 15.7.2 Saudi Arabia 15.7.3 United Arab Emirates 15.8 North America 15.8.1 Canada 15.8.2 The United States Summary Discussion points and questions Case Study 15.1: Managing in Asia: Cross-cultural dimensions Website links References Part Six Multicultural Competence 16 Multicultural competence in a global world Introduction 16.1 The concept of multicultural competence 16.2 Dimensions of multicultural competence 16.3 Other factors influencing multicultural competence 16.4 Multicultural competence as a process 16.5 Multicultural competence development levels 16.6 Multiculturalism assessment techniques 16.7 An educational challenge Summary Discussion points and questions Further reading Case Study 16.1: One practical solution to overcoming the language barrier Website links References Conclusion
Bibliographic & ordering Information
Paperback, 344 pages, publication date: OCT-2008
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7897-1
ISBN-10: 0-7506-7897-6
Imprint: BUTTERWORTH HEINEMANN
Price: Order form
EUR 40.95
USD 44.95
GBP 27.99
A must read article for resort project developers
The Importance of Cultural Competence to Location-Based Leisure Projects
By Randy White
© 2001 White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group
Culture is a lot like water to fish. It sustains us. We live and breathe through it. A fish only discovers its need for water when it is taken out of it. People are rarely aware of all the aspects of their own culture until they find themselves in another culture. Then, they become aware how ubiquitous their culture is to all aspects of their lives.
Culture comes in layers, like an onion. To understand it you have to unpeel it layer by layer. On the outer layer are the explicit, observable products of the culture such as the language, food, architecture, fashions and art. They are, however, only symbols of deeper layers of culture. Values and norms are the middle layer of culture and more difficult to identify. Norms are the mutual sense a group has of what is "right" and "wrong." Norms are reflected in laws and rules of conduct. Values determine the definition of "good" and "bad." Norms address how a person should behave, whereas values deal with how a person aspires to behave. What is taken for granted-unquestioned reality, core assumptions-is at the core of culture. These are the things, that when questioned, cannot be answered and provoke confusion and irritation. In the US, asking someone why he or she believes all people are equal only brings frustration. In the East, asking someone why he or she believes in arranged marriages would bring the same frustration.
Although many of the same products will appear in different cultures, they do not necessarily reflect the same values or meaning. To someone in Moscow, eating at a McDonald's is a status symbol, while to a New Yorker, it is only a quick meal for a few bucks. In other cultures, such as parts of Spain, what is designed to be a quick meal doesn't mesh with their custom of long dining experiences. The tables won't turn as fast, so to do the same volume, a McDonald's needs more seating.
All too often, whether by ignorance or arrogance, leisure destination venues fail to match both the physical facility and operations to the culture of their guests. Western design firms typically produce projects from within their familiar Western cultural paradigm, without research and consideration of the unique cultural characteristics of the project's target market. This problem is greatest when Western design firms venture furthest from their cultural-base into unfamiliar cultures, but can also occur when they are working in geographically close or related cultures. Examples of such cultural differences that need to be considered are:
* In the UK and most of Europe, a waiter will not remove plates from a table until everyone is finished. In the US, waiters remove plates as people finish. What is considered proper practice in one culture is considered rude in the other.
* Queuing and waiting your turn is the custom in most Western cultures. However, designing on the assumption that visitors will wait their turn and queue in an orderly manner in Italy or the Middle East, where the cultures are more synchronic, will only result in serious operational problems.
No culture is homogeneous. Differences between people within a culture can be vast-greater than their similarities-shaped by such factors as gender, class, ethnicity or socioeconomic status.
Even within the US, there is considerable variation in many aspects of culture from region to region; even city to city; sometimes even in different sections of the same city. For example, the restaurant industry long ago became aware of differences in cultural territorial spacing. The inches that separate adjoining tables in New York will be many feet in Omaha, Nebraska. Iced tea is served pre-sweetened in the southern US and parts of Canada, whereas, in other parts of North America, it is never served sweetened. Submarine, hoagie, hero, grinder, and poor-boy are all the same sandwich by different names depending where you are in North America.
Most areas of the US, as well as many other countries, have diverse ethnic populations, each with their own unique cultures and customs. It is important to not only consider the culture of the majority population, but to also consider those other cultures. One simple example is birthday party facilities. If you design them for Anglos, they will be too small for Latino families who hold large, multi-generational celebrations, and there will be no place for the traditional piÒata breaking.
Being an ethnographer is not easy. Since culture is learned by constant reinforcement from parents and authority figures-it is usually just viewed as 'the way things are.' People find it very difficult to articulate the beliefs of their own culture. It usually takes an outsider to discern and articulate a culture's characteristics.
When a leisure project is mismatched to the area's culture(s), it leaves the guest feeling ill at ease and uncomfortable, often not totally conscious of the reason. The effect on guests can sometimes be almost as drastic as what happens when you put a fresh water fish in salt water. Unlike a fish, guests do have the option of leaving the project and never coming back. When the management culture doesn't match the staff's, unhappy staff will create unhappy guests. Moreover, of course, cultural dissonance results in a project with less than ideal performance, even failure.
One way to analyze and understand a culture is to examine how it distinguishes itself from others by the solutions it chooses to the three universal problems faced by all cultures-relationships with people, time and nature. Each culture has a shared set of meanings and beliefs and distinguishes itself from others by the solutions it chooses to these problems which reveal themselves as dilemmas:
Relationships with People
* Universalism versus Particularism - relying on rules, codes and laws versus exceptions, special circumstances and relationships.
* Individualism versus Collectivism - the importance of the individual and personal freedom versus the importance of the group and cooperative and harmonious relations.
* Neutral versus Emotional - the range of feelings expressed, whether interactions are detached or express emotion.
* Specific versus Diffuse - the degree of personal involvement in dealings, whether limited to the specific aspect of a transaction or with the whole person, requiring whole relationships.
* Achievement versus Ascription - how status is accorded by either what you have done and achieved versus who you are and who you are connected to.
Attitudes about Time - sequential or synchronic. How the past, present and future relate to each other and which has greatest importance; whether time is considered as a sequence passing in a straight line or more as moving in a circle. The standard of punctuality can range from minutes to a day or more.
Attitudes about the natural environment - whether the world is considered as more powerful than the individual or the individual is the source of vice and virtue; whether society should be subordinate to, in harmony with or master nature.
The solutions cultures chose to these dilemmas are never either/or, but rather fall somewhere along a continuum between the dilemmas.
Culturally competent leisure venue design and management requires an approach that:
* first researches in depth the location's culture, and not just its visible elements, but its core values and norms and how it deals with the universal dilemmas, and
* then examines conventional Western leisure concepts to see how they should be adapted to that particular culture.
Then it's time to look for design and management solutions that don't exist in the West, but which will work within that cultural context. It's like trying to rewrite the evolution of that particular type of location-based leisure venue. You have to try to determine what it would look like today if it had evolved in that culture, rather than in the West.
Culturally competent design requires extensive research and planning. It is extensive up-front cultural research that produces long-term success. Although some of the research can be based upon published information, most of the research needs to look at the subtle cultural considerations that can only be unearthed by an astute trained observer who conducts research on-site. This research needs to include trained observations and qualitative research with interviews, and possibly focus groups.
When Western concepts and designs are literally exported to other cultures, not only does it stifle the project's success and is disrespectful to the guests, staff and their culture, but the effect can be to subtly undermine the very cultural foundations of the society where the project is located.
The crew of the Enterprise in Star Trek television series followed a Prime Directive when they encountered other cultures:
The right of each sentient species to live in accordance with its normal cultural evolution is considered sacred. No Star Fleet personnel may interfere with the healthy development of alien life or culture.
We, at the White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group, believe that all leisure projects should follow a similar standard. Therefore, in our work, we have adopted the following prime directive:
The Prime Directive of Location-Based Leisure
1. Develop and operate with understanding and respect for the cultures of your guests and staff.
2. Don't impose your culture, values and customs on them.
3. Rather:
* First thoroughly research their culture, including its norms and values and how they deal with the universal dilemmas;
* Determine how their culture will relate to the project and how all, or aspects of the project, might be in conflict with their culture; and
* Then design the physical facility and operations so they will reflect and reinforce the culture and identity of your staff and guests.
Cultural competence is not only the morally right approach to design and operation of a leisure project, but the one that will maximize success.
By Randy White
© 2001 White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group
Culture is a lot like water to fish. It sustains us. We live and breathe through it. A fish only discovers its need for water when it is taken out of it. People are rarely aware of all the aspects of their own culture until they find themselves in another culture. Then, they become aware how ubiquitous their culture is to all aspects of their lives.
Culture comes in layers, like an onion. To understand it you have to unpeel it layer by layer. On the outer layer are the explicit, observable products of the culture such as the language, food, architecture, fashions and art. They are, however, only symbols of deeper layers of culture. Values and norms are the middle layer of culture and more difficult to identify. Norms are the mutual sense a group has of what is "right" and "wrong." Norms are reflected in laws and rules of conduct. Values determine the definition of "good" and "bad." Norms address how a person should behave, whereas values deal with how a person aspires to behave. What is taken for granted-unquestioned reality, core assumptions-is at the core of culture. These are the things, that when questioned, cannot be answered and provoke confusion and irritation. In the US, asking someone why he or she believes all people are equal only brings frustration. In the East, asking someone why he or she believes in arranged marriages would bring the same frustration.
Although many of the same products will appear in different cultures, they do not necessarily reflect the same values or meaning. To someone in Moscow, eating at a McDonald's is a status symbol, while to a New Yorker, it is only a quick meal for a few bucks. In other cultures, such as parts of Spain, what is designed to be a quick meal doesn't mesh with their custom of long dining experiences. The tables won't turn as fast, so to do the same volume, a McDonald's needs more seating.
All too often, whether by ignorance or arrogance, leisure destination venues fail to match both the physical facility and operations to the culture of their guests. Western design firms typically produce projects from within their familiar Western cultural paradigm, without research and consideration of the unique cultural characteristics of the project's target market. This problem is greatest when Western design firms venture furthest from their cultural-base into unfamiliar cultures, but can also occur when they are working in geographically close or related cultures. Examples of such cultural differences that need to be considered are:
* In the UK and most of Europe, a waiter will not remove plates from a table until everyone is finished. In the US, waiters remove plates as people finish. What is considered proper practice in one culture is considered rude in the other.
* Queuing and waiting your turn is the custom in most Western cultures. However, designing on the assumption that visitors will wait their turn and queue in an orderly manner in Italy or the Middle East, where the cultures are more synchronic, will only result in serious operational problems.
No culture is homogeneous. Differences between people within a culture can be vast-greater than their similarities-shaped by such factors as gender, class, ethnicity or socioeconomic status.
Even within the US, there is considerable variation in many aspects of culture from region to region; even city to city; sometimes even in different sections of the same city. For example, the restaurant industry long ago became aware of differences in cultural territorial spacing. The inches that separate adjoining tables in New York will be many feet in Omaha, Nebraska. Iced tea is served pre-sweetened in the southern US and parts of Canada, whereas, in other parts of North America, it is never served sweetened. Submarine, hoagie, hero, grinder, and poor-boy are all the same sandwich by different names depending where you are in North America.
Most areas of the US, as well as many other countries, have diverse ethnic populations, each with their own unique cultures and customs. It is important to not only consider the culture of the majority population, but to also consider those other cultures. One simple example is birthday party facilities. If you design them for Anglos, they will be too small for Latino families who hold large, multi-generational celebrations, and there will be no place for the traditional piÒata breaking.
Being an ethnographer is not easy. Since culture is learned by constant reinforcement from parents and authority figures-it is usually just viewed as 'the way things are.' People find it very difficult to articulate the beliefs of their own culture. It usually takes an outsider to discern and articulate a culture's characteristics.
When a leisure project is mismatched to the area's culture(s), it leaves the guest feeling ill at ease and uncomfortable, often not totally conscious of the reason. The effect on guests can sometimes be almost as drastic as what happens when you put a fresh water fish in salt water. Unlike a fish, guests do have the option of leaving the project and never coming back. When the management culture doesn't match the staff's, unhappy staff will create unhappy guests. Moreover, of course, cultural dissonance results in a project with less than ideal performance, even failure.
One way to analyze and understand a culture is to examine how it distinguishes itself from others by the solutions it chooses to the three universal problems faced by all cultures-relationships with people, time and nature. Each culture has a shared set of meanings and beliefs and distinguishes itself from others by the solutions it chooses to these problems which reveal themselves as dilemmas:
Relationships with People
* Universalism versus Particularism - relying on rules, codes and laws versus exceptions, special circumstances and relationships.
* Individualism versus Collectivism - the importance of the individual and personal freedom versus the importance of the group and cooperative and harmonious relations.
* Neutral versus Emotional - the range of feelings expressed, whether interactions are detached or express emotion.
* Specific versus Diffuse - the degree of personal involvement in dealings, whether limited to the specific aspect of a transaction or with the whole person, requiring whole relationships.
* Achievement versus Ascription - how status is accorded by either what you have done and achieved versus who you are and who you are connected to.
Attitudes about Time - sequential or synchronic. How the past, present and future relate to each other and which has greatest importance; whether time is considered as a sequence passing in a straight line or more as moving in a circle. The standard of punctuality can range from minutes to a day or more.
Attitudes about the natural environment - whether the world is considered as more powerful than the individual or the individual is the source of vice and virtue; whether society should be subordinate to, in harmony with or master nature.
The solutions cultures chose to these dilemmas are never either/or, but rather fall somewhere along a continuum between the dilemmas.
Culturally competent leisure venue design and management requires an approach that:
* first researches in depth the location's culture, and not just its visible elements, but its core values and norms and how it deals with the universal dilemmas, and
* then examines conventional Western leisure concepts to see how they should be adapted to that particular culture.
Then it's time to look for design and management solutions that don't exist in the West, but which will work within that cultural context. It's like trying to rewrite the evolution of that particular type of location-based leisure venue. You have to try to determine what it would look like today if it had evolved in that culture, rather than in the West.
Culturally competent design requires extensive research and planning. It is extensive up-front cultural research that produces long-term success. Although some of the research can be based upon published information, most of the research needs to look at the subtle cultural considerations that can only be unearthed by an astute trained observer who conducts research on-site. This research needs to include trained observations and qualitative research with interviews, and possibly focus groups.
When Western concepts and designs are literally exported to other cultures, not only does it stifle the project's success and is disrespectful to the guests, staff and their culture, but the effect can be to subtly undermine the very cultural foundations of the society where the project is located.
The crew of the Enterprise in Star Trek television series followed a Prime Directive when they encountered other cultures:
The right of each sentient species to live in accordance with its normal cultural evolution is considered sacred. No Star Fleet personnel may interfere with the healthy development of alien life or culture.
We, at the White Hutchinson Leisure & Learning Group, believe that all leisure projects should follow a similar standard. Therefore, in our work, we have adopted the following prime directive:
The Prime Directive of Location-Based Leisure
1. Develop and operate with understanding and respect for the cultures of your guests and staff.
2. Don't impose your culture, values and customs on them.
3. Rather:
* First thoroughly research their culture, including its norms and values and how they deal with the universal dilemmas;
* Determine how their culture will relate to the project and how all, or aspects of the project, might be in conflict with their culture; and
* Then design the physical facility and operations so they will reflect and reinforce the culture and identity of your staff and guests.
Cultural competence is not only the morally right approach to design and operation of a leisure project, but the one that will maximize success.
Integrated Travelers Are Sensitive to their Impact on the Societies and Ecosystems they Visit
Integrated Travel is the only way to travel. It takes into account the social, ecological and economic impact that the traveler will have on the host country or location. In so doing, the integrated traveler leaves a positive footprint wherever he goes, rather than unconsciously or inadvertently having a negative impact. This blog will showcase and share best practices related to this growing field of study and application in the lives of the "everyday" traveler.
Only through applied research can we learn best practices related to this field. This often means making mistakes. Thus, we will also showcase those that could use a little help in the way they conduct travel-related business. This is done in a totally nonjudgemental way (from a research perspective), as we know that this field is a work in progress and many tourism agencies and businesses catering to travelers are often unaware of their negative impact on the host countries. We will showcase them (sometimes anonymously) as case studies that will help us learn from their mistakes and thus, help them transform their ventures into socially and ecologically conscious profitable enterprises.
Stay tuned!
Only through applied research can we learn best practices related to this field. This often means making mistakes. Thus, we will also showcase those that could use a little help in the way they conduct travel-related business. This is done in a totally nonjudgemental way (from a research perspective), as we know that this field is a work in progress and many tourism agencies and businesses catering to travelers are often unaware of their negative impact on the host countries. We will showcase them (sometimes anonymously) as case studies that will help us learn from their mistakes and thus, help them transform their ventures into socially and ecologically conscious profitable enterprises.
Stay tuned!
International Living Is Full of Examples of Non-Responsible Travel
We have posted the feed of International Living Postcards on this blog because we aim to get material from these publishings to use as an example of "how not to act."
With time, we will share these observations with International Living and similar organizations in hopes that they will "see the light" and encourage their partners to alter some of their irresponsible travel/tourism and international living advice & practices.
With time, we will share these observations with International Living and similar organizations in hopes that they will "see the light" and encourage their partners to alter some of their irresponsible travel/tourism and international living advice & practices.
Some Suggestions for Responsible Places to Stay at in Costa Rica
If you are traveling to Costa Rica, there are many, many eco-friendly ways to travel that are also socially responsible.
Here is the beginnings of a list:
Finca3Semillas Mountain Inn
Tres Semillas Rainforest Center
Instituto ASIS Wildlife Rescue Center
The Connections Experience
Some relevant links and resources:
Sustainable Tourism
ICT-Turismo Sostenible Program
Here is the beginnings of a list:
Finca3Semillas Mountain Inn
Tres Semillas Rainforest Center
Instituto ASIS Wildlife Rescue Center
The Connections Experience
Some relevant links and resources:
Sustainable Tourism
ICT-Turismo Sostenible Program
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